The Need for Self-Introspection to End the Futile Argument Over Historical Perception
ONO Goro / Professor Emeritus, Saitama University
June 7, 2013
Recently, Prime Minister Abe Shinzo's definition of "aggression" and Osaka Mayor Hashimoto Toru's comments on "comfort women" were met with criticism from Japan's neighboring countries as "misguided historical perceptions" of Japan's war record, and provoked alarm in the United States and Europe as well. Indeed, from a third-person perspective it is an undeniable fact that Japan committed acts of aggression against its neighbors before and during WWII, and its disregard for human rights in the employment of "comfort women" should certainly be condemned, regardless of the circumstances at the time.
Why then does the issue crop up repeatedly over time, instead of being put to rest once and for all with a decisive conclusion?
In my previous commentary "The Real Causes for Japa''s Rightward Shift Need to be Addressed," I sought to explain one of the reasons: Japan has continued to evade forming an autonomous, responsible overview of its wartime deeds – by which I mean deeds perpetrated by the entire country including the Imperial Japanese Army as well as its people, choosing instead to accept the judgment passed by postwar trials initiated by the occupying forces. Yet, the trial itself had been held to satisfy the motive of the United States, a victor nation, and in retrospect this caused recognizable distortions. Some who deserved condemnation were let off the hook, while others received unwarranted punishment. And this gave way to the utilitarian logic that it was better to go along with the results of the trial and avoid self-introspection altogether. It also gave breathing space to those who sought to deny responsibility for their very own wartime deeds.
This being the case, Japan must fulfill its obligation if it hopes to go on in the international community with its face up as a "reborn Japan"” First, as a truly autonomous nation it must conclude a fair overall assessment of its past, admitting to its faults as warranted, apologizing where necessary and extending compensation as required. Only then can Japan say what must be said. Conversely, being preoccupied with self-vindication without taking this necessary step is not only far from being “patriotic,” but shows a lack of pride in being an independent, self-disciplined Japanese.
And while what I am about to state is strictly premised on such self-introspection, it must be pointed out that self-introspection by Japan will not be enough to settle this futile argument once and for all. Because those punishable deeds that were overlooked - as mentioned above - naturally include deeds committed by the victor nations themselves. As long as their deeds remain unaccounted for, dissatisfaction will continue to simmer among the Japanese people. Not only that, but it may send the wrong message to countries that are neither WWII victors nor losers that are beginning to join the current trend toward globalization as new players in the international community, and may lead the entire globalization process astray.
Countries that emerged victorious from WWII have been the ones wielding actual power in leading the postwar world. If they seek to behave in a manner befitting their status into the future, they should take globalization as an opportunity to lead the way in self-introspection, instead of becoming complacent with protecting vested interests gained from the "postwar system"” Otherwise, the idea of "might is right" will prevail, making nuclear weapons capability a common requirement for invincibility throughout the world and forcing us all to live in constant fear of nuclear terrorism around the globe.
This issue will never be resolved as long as condemnation is directed solely at the deeds of the Imperial Japanese Army during WWII, while ignoring events that have since transpired, such as the specific example below that I myself witnessed in the postwar era.
In Shinjuku, Tokyo, where I spent my boyhood, there were numerous brothels serving U.S. military personnel, both authorized and unauthorized. I have also observed similar facilities in Southeast Asia, where I traveled as a young man. Whatever their official designation, "comfort stations" have always existed as a sexual outlet for the occupying troops. As long as we overlook this fact, we cannot truly hope to recover the human rights of women who were abused. And since most of the women were sold into prostitution by their parents, including cases where they worked to repay debt, digging deep into their past may actually cause more harm, thus requiring a more comprehensive remedy.
Over the years, various reasons have been offered to justify the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the Great Tokyo Air Raids. But even if we put these aside, there is no denying that mass killings and acts of brutality involving collateral damage have been committed in Iraq and elsewhere. If we choose to ignore these incidents, or do no better than to recognize them with an "expression of regret," it will only set off a vicious cycle of “an eye for an eye.”
Whether we call it an "aggression" or not, many of the major powers are weighed down by the historical fact of having colonized vast stretches of land and committed barbaric acts. That is precisely why they are regarded with hostility or with a victim mentality by their neighboring countries and regions as well as the developing countries. While it is true that in many cases efforts have been made to mend such relationships, in reality these also include cases of "betrayal under the guise of obedience." Lack of perception on this aspect may reignite the conflict some day.
Meanwhile, whether victor nations engage in such self-introspection or not has nothing to do with absolving Japan of its own responsibility for self-introspection. Rather, only when Japan sets an example for the victor nations by facing up to that responsibility can it cast off the yoke of a defeated nation and start striding through the international community with its head held high.
Goro Ono is Professor Emeritus at Saitama University.
Why then does the issue crop up repeatedly over time, instead of being put to rest once and for all with a decisive conclusion?
In my previous commentary "The Real Causes for Japa''s Rightward Shift Need to be Addressed," I sought to explain one of the reasons: Japan has continued to evade forming an autonomous, responsible overview of its wartime deeds – by which I mean deeds perpetrated by the entire country including the Imperial Japanese Army as well as its people, choosing instead to accept the judgment passed by postwar trials initiated by the occupying forces. Yet, the trial itself had been held to satisfy the motive of the United States, a victor nation, and in retrospect this caused recognizable distortions. Some who deserved condemnation were let off the hook, while others received unwarranted punishment. And this gave way to the utilitarian logic that it was better to go along with the results of the trial and avoid self-introspection altogether. It also gave breathing space to those who sought to deny responsibility for their very own wartime deeds.
This being the case, Japan must fulfill its obligation if it hopes to go on in the international community with its face up as a "reborn Japan"” First, as a truly autonomous nation it must conclude a fair overall assessment of its past, admitting to its faults as warranted, apologizing where necessary and extending compensation as required. Only then can Japan say what must be said. Conversely, being preoccupied with self-vindication without taking this necessary step is not only far from being “patriotic,” but shows a lack of pride in being an independent, self-disciplined Japanese.
And while what I am about to state is strictly premised on such self-introspection, it must be pointed out that self-introspection by Japan will not be enough to settle this futile argument once and for all. Because those punishable deeds that were overlooked - as mentioned above - naturally include deeds committed by the victor nations themselves. As long as their deeds remain unaccounted for, dissatisfaction will continue to simmer among the Japanese people. Not only that, but it may send the wrong message to countries that are neither WWII victors nor losers that are beginning to join the current trend toward globalization as new players in the international community, and may lead the entire globalization process astray.
Countries that emerged victorious from WWII have been the ones wielding actual power in leading the postwar world. If they seek to behave in a manner befitting their status into the future, they should take globalization as an opportunity to lead the way in self-introspection, instead of becoming complacent with protecting vested interests gained from the "postwar system"” Otherwise, the idea of "might is right" will prevail, making nuclear weapons capability a common requirement for invincibility throughout the world and forcing us all to live in constant fear of nuclear terrorism around the globe.
This issue will never be resolved as long as condemnation is directed solely at the deeds of the Imperial Japanese Army during WWII, while ignoring events that have since transpired, such as the specific example below that I myself witnessed in the postwar era.
In Shinjuku, Tokyo, where I spent my boyhood, there were numerous brothels serving U.S. military personnel, both authorized and unauthorized. I have also observed similar facilities in Southeast Asia, where I traveled as a young man. Whatever their official designation, "comfort stations" have always existed as a sexual outlet for the occupying troops. As long as we overlook this fact, we cannot truly hope to recover the human rights of women who were abused. And since most of the women were sold into prostitution by their parents, including cases where they worked to repay debt, digging deep into their past may actually cause more harm, thus requiring a more comprehensive remedy.
Over the years, various reasons have been offered to justify the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the Great Tokyo Air Raids. But even if we put these aside, there is no denying that mass killings and acts of brutality involving collateral damage have been committed in Iraq and elsewhere. If we choose to ignore these incidents, or do no better than to recognize them with an "expression of regret," it will only set off a vicious cycle of “an eye for an eye.”
Whether we call it an "aggression" or not, many of the major powers are weighed down by the historical fact of having colonized vast stretches of land and committed barbaric acts. That is precisely why they are regarded with hostility or with a victim mentality by their neighboring countries and regions as well as the developing countries. While it is true that in many cases efforts have been made to mend such relationships, in reality these also include cases of "betrayal under the guise of obedience." Lack of perception on this aspect may reignite the conflict some day.
Meanwhile, whether victor nations engage in such self-introspection or not has nothing to do with absolving Japan of its own responsibility for self-introspection. Rather, only when Japan sets an example for the victor nations by facing up to that responsibility can it cast off the yoke of a defeated nation and start striding through the international community with its head held high.
Goro Ono is Professor Emeritus at Saitama University.
The English-Speaking Union of Japan
歴史認識、不毛な議論の背景にある自省心の欠如
小野五郎 / 埼玉大学名誉教授
2013年 6月 7日
安倍総理の「侵略」、橋下市長の「慰安婦」等発言に対して、周辺国から「誤った歴史認識」との非難が寄せられ、また欧米各国からも彼らの発言に対して警戒心が示されている。なるほど、そこにいかなる背景があろうとも、第三者的に考えれば、戦前・戦中に日本が周辺国を侵略したのは事実だと認めるほかはないし、女性の人権を無視した慰安婦なる存在は断罪すべきである。
にもかかわらず、この問題が繰り返し惹き起こされ、いつまで経っても終止符が打たれないのはなぜだろうか？
その一つは、先に「日本の右傾化の背景」で述べたように、日本では、いまだに戦前・戦中における日本（旧軍だけではなく、全国民を含む国家全体）の行為を、占領軍によって主導された裁判の結果を受け入れただけで、日本人自らの手で自律的にきちんと総括することなく済ませてきたことにある。だが、あの裁判自体当時の戦勝国、米政府の思惑に則って行なわれたものであるから、今にして思えば、一方で糾弾されるべきものが見過ごされ、他方で裁かれるべきではなかった者が断罪されたという歪が認められる。そこに、一方で判決に従った方が得という功利的な判断から自省せず済ませようとする風潮が生まれ、他方で過去の自らの行為責任までも否定しようとする者の存在を許すことになったのである。
したがって、新生日本として国際社会の中で胸を張って生きて行くために必要なことは、まずは真の独立国として自らの手できちんと過去を総括し、非は非として認め、謝罪すべきは謝罪し、償うべきは償う。その上で、改めて言うべきことはきちんと言う、ということである。逆から言えば、そうした手順を踏むことなくただ自己弁護に明け暮れるのは、「愛国者」どころか、自立・自律した日本人としての矜持を欠くものだと言わざるをえない。
さて、あくまでそうした日本自身の自省を前提とした上でのことであるが、この不毛な問題に終止符を打つためには、それだけでは不十分である。なぜなら、上で述べた「糾弾されるべきでありながら見過ごされたもの」の中には、裁いた当の戦勝国側の類似行為も当然に含まれるべきであり、それが放置されたままでは、単に多くの日本人にとって釈然としないというだけではなく、戦勝国でも敗戦国ではない国々が新たに国際社会の一プレイヤーとして参加しはじめた現下のグローバリゼーションを誤った方向へと導きかねないからである。
すなわち、戦後実質的に全世界を主導してきた戦勝国は、今後ともその立場に相応しく振る舞おうと考えるのであれば、いわゆる「戦後体制」の既得権に甘んずることなく、グローバリゼーションを機に率先して自省すべきなのである。さもないと「勝てば官軍」思想から、勝つため、あるいは、負けぬための手段としての核保有が全世界で常態化し、それこそいかなる所でも常に「核テロ」の恐怖を味わわなければならないことになろう。
具体的に言えば、戦後、筆者自身が見てきた以下のような事実に目を瞑ったまま、より昔の旧日本軍の所業ばかりを糾弾しても、決して問題の解決にはならないということである。
① 少年期を過ごした東京新宿には公認・非公認米軍向け売春施設が多数存在していたし、青年期以降訪れた東南アジアでも類似施設を見かけており、名目の如何に関わらず駐留軍兵士たちに性のはけ口を提供する慰安所が存在してきたということ。その点を見過ごしていたのでは、真に女性の人権を回復することにはなるまい。なお、女性の大半は親の手で身売り（借金返済のために働くという話も含む）であり、今になって事実を深掘りすることはかえって彼女たちの人権を傷つけかねないから、より包括的な救済手段を講ずることが求められる。
② 何かと理屈づけがされがちな広島・長崎における核投下・東京大空襲はさておいても、イラクその他では一般市民を巻き添えにした大量殺戮行為や残虐行為が行なわれていたこと。これを看過ないし「遺憾の意」程度で済まそうとすれば、それこそ「目には目を」の悪循環を招くことになろう。
③ 「侵略」と呼ぶかどうかは別としても、大国の多くが過去に広大な土地を植民地化し蛮行を働いてきたという歴史的事実は重く、だからこそ周辺国・周辺地域・後発国から敵視・あるいは被害者意識をもって見られていること。もちろん、その中にはすでに何らかの形で関係修復が図られているものも多いが、その実「面従腹背」も混じっており、その辺の認識なしにはいつか紛争が再燃しよう。
もちろん、こうした戦勝国側の自省の有無をもって、日本自身が上に述べた自省すべきを免れる免罪符とすべきではない。というより、日本がきちんと自省し戦勝国に対して範を示してこそ、敗戦国の軛から抜け出し国際社会を大手を振って歩いていけることになるのである。
（筆者は埼玉大学名誉教授。）
にもかかわらず、この問題が繰り返し惹き起こされ、いつまで経っても終止符が打たれないのはなぜだろうか？
その一つは、先に「日本の右傾化の背景」で述べたように、日本では、いまだに戦前・戦中における日本（旧軍だけではなく、全国民を含む国家全体）の行為を、占領軍によって主導された裁判の結果を受け入れただけで、日本人自らの手で自律的にきちんと総括することなく済ませてきたことにある。だが、あの裁判自体当時の戦勝国、米政府の思惑に則って行なわれたものであるから、今にして思えば、一方で糾弾されるべきものが見過ごされ、他方で裁かれるべきではなかった者が断罪されたという歪が認められる。そこに、一方で判決に従った方が得という功利的な判断から自省せず済ませようとする風潮が生まれ、他方で過去の自らの行為責任までも否定しようとする者の存在を許すことになったのである。
したがって、新生日本として国際社会の中で胸を張って生きて行くために必要なことは、まずは真の独立国として自らの手できちんと過去を総括し、非は非として認め、謝罪すべきは謝罪し、償うべきは償う。その上で、改めて言うべきことはきちんと言う、ということである。逆から言えば、そうした手順を踏むことなくただ自己弁護に明け暮れるのは、「愛国者」どころか、自立・自律した日本人としての矜持を欠くものだと言わざるをえない。
さて、あくまでそうした日本自身の自省を前提とした上でのことであるが、この不毛な問題に終止符を打つためには、それだけでは不十分である。なぜなら、上で述べた「糾弾されるべきでありながら見過ごされたもの」の中には、裁いた当の戦勝国側の類似行為も当然に含まれるべきであり、それが放置されたままでは、単に多くの日本人にとって釈然としないというだけではなく、戦勝国でも敗戦国ではない国々が新たに国際社会の一プレイヤーとして参加しはじめた現下のグローバリゼーションを誤った方向へと導きかねないからである。
すなわち、戦後実質的に全世界を主導してきた戦勝国は、今後ともその立場に相応しく振る舞おうと考えるのであれば、いわゆる「戦後体制」の既得権に甘んずることなく、グローバリゼーションを機に率先して自省すべきなのである。さもないと「勝てば官軍」思想から、勝つため、あるいは、負けぬための手段としての核保有が全世界で常態化し、それこそいかなる所でも常に「核テロ」の恐怖を味わわなければならないことになろう。
具体的に言えば、戦後、筆者自身が見てきた以下のような事実に目を瞑ったまま、より昔の旧日本軍の所業ばかりを糾弾しても、決して問題の解決にはならないということである。
① 少年期を過ごした東京新宿には公認・非公認米軍向け売春施設が多数存在していたし、青年期以降訪れた東南アジアでも類似施設を見かけており、名目の如何に関わらず駐留軍兵士たちに性のはけ口を提供する慰安所が存在してきたということ。その点を見過ごしていたのでは、真に女性の人権を回復することにはなるまい。なお、女性の大半は親の手で身売り（借金返済のために働くという話も含む）であり、今になって事実を深掘りすることはかえって彼女たちの人権を傷つけかねないから、より包括的な救済手段を講ずることが求められる。
② 何かと理屈づけがされがちな広島・長崎における核投下・東京大空襲はさておいても、イラクその他では一般市民を巻き添えにした大量殺戮行為や残虐行為が行なわれていたこと。これを看過ないし「遺憾の意」程度で済まそうとすれば、それこそ「目には目を」の悪循環を招くことになろう。
③ 「侵略」と呼ぶかどうかは別としても、大国の多くが過去に広大な土地を植民地化し蛮行を働いてきたという歴史的事実は重く、だからこそ周辺国・周辺地域・後発国から敵視・あるいは被害者意識をもって見られていること。もちろん、その中にはすでに何らかの形で関係修復が図られているものも多いが、その実「面従腹背」も混じっており、その辺の認識なしにはいつか紛争が再燃しよう。
もちろん、こうした戦勝国側の自省の有無をもって、日本自身が上に述べた自省すべきを免れる免罪符とすべきではない。というより、日本がきちんと自省し戦勝国に対して範を示してこそ、敗戦国の軛から抜け出し国際社会を大手を振って歩いていけることになるのである。
（筆者は埼玉大学名誉教授。）
一般社団法人 日本英語交流連盟